The Wise Judge free essay sample

The Wise Judge Narrator 1 : The widow Yemswitch was a good old woman. But she had long since grown hard of hearing. She had a small flock of sheep that she tended. One day, the sheep wandered. Setting out to look for them, she met farmer Mulugueta who had just finished his plowing. Widow: â€Å"Ato Mulugueta,† said the widow, â€Å"have you seen my sheep today? † Narrator 2:Now farmer Mulugueta was a good old man, but, he, too, had grown hard of hearing. Since he had just come from the field, he thought she was sking about his plowing. Farmer :â€Å"Yes, Wizero Yemswitch,† he answered. I have worked very hard today. † Narrator 1 : He pointed toward his powed field to show her what he had done. Narrator 2 : The widow had not understood a word. She thought he was pointing toward her lost flock of sheep. Widow:â€Å"Thank you, farmer Mulugueta,† she said. â€Å" If I find them there I shall give you one. We will write a custom essay sample on The Wise Judge or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page † Narrator 1 2:They bowed politely to each other. Narrator 1 : Then the widow went looking where the farmer had pointed. As luck would have it, she found the sheep just over the hill. She was grateful to the farmer for noting so carefully the way they had gone. In a little while, they might have been found by leopard or jackals. She discovered that one of the lamb had injured a leg. She decided to give this lamb to the farmer. Going to his house, she found him preparing his supper for his wife had been dead for many years. Widow:â€Å"Ato Mulugueta,† she said. â€Å"I found the sheep where you said they where. I brought you this lamb for your reward. † Narrator 2:Mulugueta did not hear a word,but he saw that the lamb had an injured leg. He thought the widow Yemswitch was accusing him of the injury. Farmer:â€Å"Oh no,† said the farmer . â€Å" I had nothing to do with it. Why should I hurt your lamb? † Widow:The widow only heard the word â€Å"No†. She thought Mulugueta wanted a better sheep. â€Å"You are a greedy man,† she said. â€Å"All you did was point the direction. Tale this lamb or you’ll get none at all. † She tried to put the lamb in his arm. Farmer:The farmer refused it. †I will not pay for this lamb,† he said. I had nothing to do with its injury. † Narrator 1 2 :They began to argue and say foolish things. This made little difference, of course, since neither could hear what the other was saying. But they made so much noise. Policeman:Then at last a policeman came by. He insisted that they go to a judge to settle their quarrel. Narrator 2:They went to a court of an old and wise judge. This judge, justice Yasu, throughout the land for his fairness. Although he was wise he was also deaf and almost blind. Thus, he could not judge by the way they look. This made him a very fair judge. Widow :The widow Yemswitch told the story first, then pointing to the lamb, she said, â€Å"My reward is generous. . . Ato Mulugueta is a greedy man to want more. † Narrator 2:Mulugueta then explain patiently that he was a kind man who would never hurt a little lamb. Farmer:â€Å"I was busy in my field,† he said. â€Å"I had not even seen the lamb. But she brought it to my house and blamed me for its injured leg. † Narrator 2:Justice Yasu listened carefully, but he couldn’t catch a word. For some time, he peered at the farmer and the widow. At last he made out an old man and an old woman. The lamb in the woman’s arm, he decided was a child. Having had experience with the people’s troubles the judge decided that this man and woman wanted a divorce. They wanted him to say which one should keep the child. Judge :â€Å"How many years have you been married? † asked the judge. Narrator 1 :The widow listened carefully but she only heard the words â€Å"how many. † She thought the judge had ask how many sheep she owned. Widow:â€Å"Twenty your honor,† she shouted loudly. Narrator 2 :The judge heard this answer, and reached his decision. Judge:â€Å"I am ashamed of you both. You’ve been married for twenty years and still have not learned to live together. You must go back and try harder. You must make a good home for your little child. If you do not, I shall put you both in prison. That is all. This case is dismissed. Narrator 2:Neither the farmer nor the widow could hear him but at last, the bailiff made them understand the judge’s decision. Widow : â€Å"Make a home together? † cried the widow. But we are not married! † Bailiff :â€Å"Then get married at once ,† said the bailiff. â€Å"If you don’t obey thejudge decision, he will put you in prison. † Widow :And so the widow, Farmer:and the farmer, Widow Farmer : went to a priest and were married that night. Narrator 1:Since she was a very good cook, Narrator 2 :And he was a very god farmer, Narrators 1 2 :and neither could hear the other they live happily ever after. And wise judge Yasu became still more famous throughout the land. -Nathalie-

Subcultural theories Essay Example

Subcultural theories Essay Example Subcultural theories Essay Subcultural theories Essay Essay Topic: Sociology Subcultural theories examine the behaviour and actions of various groups within society groups with either reject or depart from the traditional norms and views of the majority. These groups are referred to as subcultures, and subcultural theories attempt to explain why these groups most are concerned with youth gangs and gang delinquency engage in deviant acts. Subcultural theories originated in America and in particular the Univeristy of Chicago Sociology Department. Clifford Shaw and Henry McKay at the University studied juvenile crime rates in Chicago and they divided the city up into a series of concentric rings. They then calculated the delinquency rates of in each ring finding that areas with the highest crime rates were those in the centre of the city, with the rates diminishing outwards from the centre. They noted that delinquency was lower in areas of high economic status while it was seen to be high in areas of low economic status. Their studies also found that these findings remained constant over time, notwithstanding successive changes in the nativity and nationality composition of the population1. They therefore came to the conclusion that delinquency-producing factors are inherent in the community2 and are culturally transmitted. They said that what is transmitted is social disorganisation This term referred to an inconsistency of values, attitudes and standards of behaviour. In areas of high economic status, ie. the middle class, there is consistency and uniformity of attitudes and morals, whereas in low economic status areas there is an absence of common values with competing attitudes and standards prevalent instead. Shaw and Mckay state that in the latter situation delinquency has developed as a powerful competing way of life3. There are, therefore, rival values, conventional and non-conventional, and gang and juvenile delinquency is a symptom of this conflict. Another theory to emerge from Chicago is Edwin Sutherland and Donald Cressey s differential association theory. Although not strictly a subcultural theory in the strict definition of the term this theory is so closely related so as to be worthy of consideration. Differential association says that criminal and deviant behaviour is learnt behaviour in the same sense as other behaviour is learnt. It tells us that a person is likely to become a criminal if they are exposed to an excess of definitions favourable to violation of the law over definitions unfavourable to violation of the law4. The effect which these associations have may vary in frequency, duration, priority and intensity. In this process of differential association, Sutherland and Cressey stress that the strongest part of the learning occurs within intimate personal groups and we can see that they are stressing the importance of the peer group, family and friends in the learning process. They also make the point that all the associations which one has in life could be quantified and a mathematical formula reached which would enable us to find out how a person will turn out. Sutherland and Cressey acknowledge however that such a weighing up of associations would be extremely difficult5. Albert Cohens main interest lay in explaining juvenile delinquency, and his major work Delinquent Boys, published in 1955, claimed that a delinquent subculture exists which could explain crime amongst juveniles. He said that when we look at the delinquent subculture we see that it is non-utilitarian, malicious and negativistic6. This, he explains, is because the subculture takes its norms from the wider culture and turns them upside down. Therefore, what the delinquent does is right according to the standards of the subculture because it is wrong according to the standards of wider society. But why do juveniles form or join these subcultures in the first place? Cohen argued that certain sections of youth feel rejected by society and the reason for this is to be found in the great tension and strain in handling the paradoxical many-are-called-but-few-are-chosen nature of schooling7. Those who cannot handle the strain suffer status deprivation and some will seek the collective delinquent subculture as the solution. Mertons8 anomie (strain) theory aims to integrate explanations of a variety of behaviours into a coherent pattern, by seeing them as related ways of coping with the problems by living in modern societies. This theory asserts that where there is a gap between what people want and what they can legitimately achieve, they experience strain. They can adapt to this strain in any of five ways. Conformists do not experience such a gap and are thus not under strain. Innovators adapt to the strain by finding alternative, usually illegitimate, methods of obtaining the goods they want. Ritualists turn adherence of social norms into a goal itself and often join movements that place moral rules above more individual goals, e. g. religious groups. Retreatists see neither the goals nor the means as valid and minimise their participation in normal society. Drug users, dropouts, hippies and priests would all be examples. Rebels are those who declare the social structure illegitimate, and seek to destroy it. A theory of much the same model9 as Cohens is put forward by Cloward and Ohlin. They accepted a similar model of delinquency causation as him but believed that he placed too much emphasis on the school. Cloward and Ohlin draw their theory in part from both Mertons anomie theory and from differential association. They say that crime occurs because of blocked and limited legitimate opportunities and that what type of criminal behaviour results depends on the individuals peer group or gang. They concluded that three types of subculture can result: criminal, conflict or retreatist. Again the importance of the group is emphasised as Cloward and Ohlin use differential association to argue that criminal behaviour is learnt from group relationships. When Lemet (1951) and Becker (1963) first promoted labelling theory, they both argued that no acts are intrinsically deviant; deviance is a moral judgement which is used to label particular acts and those who commit them. Thus social groups can create deviance by making rules whose infraction constitutes deviance, and by applying those rules to particular people and labelling them as outsiders10. The principal strength of these various theories appears to be their superior explanation of juvenile delinquency and crime, such as vandalism, joy-riding and pointless theft, which mainly occurs within juvenile gangs or subcultures. Much of the other criminological explanations of crime largely ignore this group reaction and concentrate solely on the individual. Mertons anomie theory is especially guilty of this and indeed Cohen criticised it for being inapplicable to both juvenile and group crime11. Similarly the biological positivists such as Eysenck look at the cause of crime as purely an individual matter without much concern for group crime. Shaw and McKays theory placed a great emphasis on juvenile crime and delinquency being a group activity delinquency is essentially group behaviour12 and they attempt to explain why people become delinquent and join gangs. They say that in areas of low economic status delinquency is a powerful rival way of life which derives its impelling force in the boys life from the fact that it provides a means of securing economic gain, prestige, and other human satisfactions and is embodied in delinquent groups and criminal organizations, many of which have great influence, power and prestige13. Children are exposed to these values as they are transmitted and passed down from generation to generation as are the techniques for committing offences. In discussing this, Shaw and Mckay give examples of the types of offences whose techniques are passed down, such as jack-rolling and shoplifting crimes which lack a purpose. They strongly emphasise the role of the peer group and they say that in the context of this group crime is regarded as normal, as from the viewpoint of the delinquents immediate social world (the subculture) and the norms associated with that world, he is not necessarily disorganised, maladjusted or antisocial but may be highly organized and well-adjusted14. Cohens explanation of juveniles turning to crime centred upon their frustration at being unable to achieve middle class success and, more specifically, success at school. He says that in the resulting delinquent subculture, delinquents respond as a group and that this response has been worked out by their group over many years. This response is to invert the norms of wider society with the result that the subcultures activities are, as mentioned earlier, non-utilitarian, malicious and negativistic. Indeed, these descriptions of the groups activities explain crimes such as shoplifting (which is non-utilitarian) and vandalism (which is malicious) rather well. Cohen himself says that much gang stealing has no motivation and is in fact stealing for the hell of it and is a valued activity to which attaches glory, prowess and profound satisfaction15 rather than as an activity for gain and profit. Crime is committed because delinquent groups are out for fun and short-term hedonism plays an important part in Cohens account of juvenile group crime. Again, like Shaw and McKay, Cohens theory emphasises the point that from the perspective of the gang themselves, their conduct could be regarded as meaningful. Although subcultural theories give a good explanation of juvenile delinquency and juvenile group crime, the fundamental weakness of these theories stems from precisely this: an overemphasis on the importance of a gang response to crimes. It places far too much emphasis on a group response rather than on individual responses. Notwithstanding the fact that most juvenile crime such as joy-riding is conducted by gangs, these theories fail to explain why crimes such as rape and murder, which are very individualistic, occur. Most of the subcultural theorists, including Shaw and McKay, Cloward and Ohlin, and especially Sutherland and Cressey, stress the significance of the peer group and the associations which one has in life. Sutherland and Cressey say that the values which encourage people to commit crime are learnt along with the techniques to commit crime. But how can this theory explain the crime of passion in which the husband murders his wife when finding her in bed with another man? He may have had no criminal associations in the past, but merely snaps. Compulsive crimes such as this are better explained by biological impulses rather by differential association or subcultural theories. It was mentioned earlier that Sutherland and Cressey stated that all the associations which one has in life can be quantified in order to find out whether a person will become deviant or not. However, as with the example above, this does not account for the honest, hard working businessman who, when his business starts doing badly is forced to commit fraud and other crimes to try and save it. It could certainly be said that he has learnt the techniques through differential association, but where and how does he learn the deviant values and motives? Stemming from this overemphasis on gang/group crime is the very closely related flaw that these theories are overly deterministic. Everyone is seen as being very heavily influenced by their peer group and little consideration is given to individual choice or free will. If, taking Shaw and McKays example, you fall within the centre circle of Chicago you are seen by them as having very little choice as to whether or not you end up in a delinquent gang. The theory of David Matza addresses in part this weakness of subcultural theories. He pointed out that these theories predicted far too much crime and delinquency16. His main theme concerned drift as he considered that delinquents drift in and out of delinquency without committing to either. He also emphasised freedom of choice and free will as important, and by doing so he answers many of the criticisms of the overly deterministic theories of Cohen, Shaw and McKay et al. The role of the subculture or gang is still important as they make such activity more likely by actively promoting it but this does not make deviant behaviour mandatory. The individual still has freedom to choose whether to commit a crime or not and to do so for personal reasons rather that as a group requirement17. The major criticisms of anomie theory are that while it outlines different possibilities for adaption, it does not explain why individuals adopt one or other forms of adaption- retreatism, ritualism etc. It also says nothing about the causes of social inequality and conflict, which is strange given the theorys recognition that inequality and conflict exists is precisely the point at which it has an advantage over functionalism. Labelling theory does not provide an account for why some social groups have the power to label and others do not, nor of why certain acts are declared illegal and others are not. In Beckers view, the theory does not, and need not, explain why some groups or individuals have the power to label, he was only concerned to show that labelling occurs and the consequences of it. There is no consensus about how far how-far a group has to go in having specialised values and norms, or stable membership, or regular activities, to qualify as a sub-culture; nor about the precise meaning of descriptions such as deviant subculture. It is also interesting to note that some studies of subcultures refer back to anomie theory and its concept of adaptation; they thus have the same weaknesses as anomie theory. It can be said that from the principal strength of subcultural theories stems its main weakness. The main theories examined provide us with a through examination of crimes largely ignored by anomie and biological theories namely juvenile crime. In their consideration of the consideration of the main causes of juvenile crime, the role and influence of the gang or group response render the application of these theories to explaining individual crimes, such as murder, irrelevant. Related to this is the fact that these theories also suffer from the flaw of being excessively deterministic. Nevertheless, as an account of why subcultures exist and why juveniles within these subcultures engage in deviant acts, the theories examined succeed this objective. Regardless of whichever theory one tends to adopt for a particular given, each has its own strengths and subsequent weaknesses. In this regard, and despite these problems, the concept of sub-culture amongst young men and women remains seductive.

History of Romance Dating Customs

History of Romance Dating Customs Where would we be without romance? What was courtship and marriage like for our distant ancestors? Beginning with the ancient Greeks recognition of the need to describe more than one kind of love, inventing the word eros to describe carnal love, and agape to mean a spiritual love, take a stroll back through romantic heritage with this timeline of romantic customs, dating rituals, and tokens of love. Ancient Courtship In ancient times, many of the first marriages were by capture, not choice - when there was a scarcity of nubile women, men raided other villages for wives. Frequently the tribe from which a warrior stole a bride would come looking for her, and it was necessary for the warrior and his new wife to go into hiding to avoid being discovered. According to an old French custom, as the moon went through all its phases the couple drank a brew called metheglin, which was made from honey. Hence, we get the word, honeymoon. Arranged marriages were the norm, primarily business relationships born out of the desire and/or need for property, monetary or political alliances. Medieval Chivalry From buying a woman dinner to opening a door for her, many of todays courting rituals are rooted in medieval chivalry. During medieval times, the importance of love in a relationship emerged as a reaction to arranged marriages but was still not considered a prerequisite in matrimonial decisions. Suitors wooed their intended with serenades and flowery poetry, following the lead of lovelorn characters on stage and in verse. Chastity and honor were highly regarded virtues. In 1228, it is said by many that women first gained the right to propose marriage in Scotland, a legal right that then slowly spread through Europe. However, a number of historians have pointed out that this supposed leap year proposal statute never occurred, and instead gained its legs as a romantic notion spread in the press.   Victorian Formality During the Victorian Era (1837-1901), romantic love became viewed as the primary requirement for marriage and courting became even more formal - almost an art form among the upper classes. An interested gentleman could not simply walk up to a young lady and begin a conversation. Even after being introduced, it was still some time before it was considered appropriate for a man to speak to a lady or for a couple to be seen together. Once they had been formally introduced, if the gentleman wished to escort the lady home he would present his card to her. At the end of the evening, the lady would look over her options and choose who would be her escort. She would notify the lucky gentleman by giving him her own card requesting that he escort her home. Almost all courting took place in the girls home, under the eye of watchful parents. If the courting progressed, the couple might advance to the front porch. Smitten couples rarely saw each other without the presence of a chaperone, and mar riage proposals were frequently written. Courtship  Customs Tokens of Love Some of the Nordic countries have courtship customs involving knives. For example, in Finland when a girl came of age, her father let it be known that she was available for marriage. The girl would wear an empty sheath attached to her girdle. If a suitor liked the girl, he would put a puukko knife in the sheath, which the girl would keep if she was interested in him.The custom of bundling, found in many parts of 16th and 17th century Europe and America, allowed courting couples to share a bed, fully clothed, and often with a bundling board between them or bolster cover tied over the girls legs. The idea was to allow the couple to talk and get to know each other but in the safe (and warm) confines of the girls house.Dating back to 17th century Wales, ornately carved spoons, known as lovespoons, were traditionally made from a single piece of wood by a suitor to show his affection to his loved one. The decorative carvings have various meanings - from an anchor meaning I desire to settl e down to an intricate vine meaning love grows. Chivalrous gentlemen in England often sent a pair of gloves to their true loves. If the woman wore the gloves to church on Sunday it signaled her acceptance of the proposal.In some parts of 18th-century Europe, a biscuit or small loaf of bread was broken over the head of the bride as she emerged from the church. Unmarried guests scrambled for the pieces, which they then placed under their pillows to bring dreams of the one they would someday marry. This custom is believed to be the precursor of the wedding cake.Many cultures throughout the world recognize the idea of matrimony as the ties that bind. In some African cultures, long grasses are braided together and used to tie the hands of the groom and bride together to symbolize their union. Delicate twine is used in the Hindu Vedic wedding ceremony to bind one of the brides hands to one of the hands of the groom. In Mexico the practice of having a ceremonial rope loosely place around both of the necks of the bride and groom to bind t hem together is common.

Marxism and Culture Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Marxism and Culture - Essay Example Marxism is not a culture, but has necessarily created a culture that Marxism depends on to self-replicate across time and throughout the class stratifications. Classical Marxism was a strict theory of labor and economics and was for all practical purposes devoid of any culture. Structural Marxism began to see the interactions of social classes and their impact on production. The media portrays the classes that are necessary for an orderly economic system and they become a part of our culture. Economic status, occupation, and social position all become cultural values. According to Butler, "Marx himself argued that pre-capitalist economic formations could not be fully extricated from the cultural and symbolic worlds in which they were embedded" (42). Values, norms, history, and heritage all become the ingredients of a culture that provides a willing and capable workforce for the ruling class. The culture, social structure, intellectual debate, and economic system cannot be divorced or stand independently. The world is made up of social groups that work either independently or interdependently to create their own culture. Groups may be formed and maintained on the basis of family, economics, geography, education, or occupation. Closely related to these social groups is the functional quality that they contribute to society's ability to produce and sustain.

Analyse why the requirements for patentability of an invention are so Essay

Analyse why the requirements for patentability of an invention are so strict. Explain, with reasons, whether this is justified - Essay Example (Brettell, Barker). A Patent is defined as a legal document granted by the government giving an inventor the exclusive right to make, use and sell an invention for a specified number of years. The endeavour of the patent system is to encourage inventors to advance the state of technology by awarding them special rights to benefit from their inventions. Patent Law has also been extended to cover Computer programs and various living organisms, such as specialized mice used in cancer research. A recent trend in the field of Patent Law is the extension of patentability to new ways of doing business for example; the method of conducting an auction on the Internet is patented. With respect to books, movies, and works of art the law of copyright is applicable. (Schechter, Roger E).1 First, it must be novel in the sense that the invention did not have prior existence. This will be determined by the patent examiners who will make all efforts to determine the nature of the invention and if they find that the proposed invention had already been described in previous patents or written about in scientific magazines, then they will declare that the invention has been â€Å"anticipated.† Whenever it is concluded that such an eventuality has transpired then in such cases, the patent will be denied. The following case law illustrates this point: Secondly, the invention must not be obvious, which implies that the invention must be a significant improvement over the existing technology. Rudimentary changes to previously known devices do not qualify an invention for a patentable invention. The relevant case law in this regard is as follows: These decisions clearly show that unless the inventive step is new and non – obvious a patent will not be granted. The stringency of the patent act is clearly illustrated here and no exceptions are

Role of Research in Psychology Essay Example for Free

Role of Research in Psychology Essay Abstract Research is essential in psychology because it helps in understanding peoples feelings, thoughts and emotions. When researching, a scientific method is needed so that there will be validity in the collected data or the whole research itself. According to Deweys Scientific Method, researching involves several steps. The basic steps are; identify and define the problem, determine the hypotheses why research is needed, collect and analyze data gathered, formulate conclusion, and apply conclusion. Primary and secondary data are needed in the course of the process. Primary data is collected through interviews or surveys. It answers the new research question directly. Secondary data is used in other research and used again in another. It is less costly and less time-consuming. The role of statistics in psychological research or any other research is to measure data obtained.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Psychology is a branch of science that deals with the cognitions, the emotions and the behavior of a person. It has five goals in understanding people’s emotions, behaviors and cognitions. The first goal is objectively observing behavior then describing it. After describing it, psychologist goes through the process of explaining what had transpired. After explaining what had happened, psychologist can now predict what will happen in the future, since past behavior can be a future behavior. Control over the matter will now be easy because of what had been observed, had been explained and had been predicted. When control is present, it should be towards positive behavior.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   To understand psychology to the fullest, one should conduct research. Research in psychology is essential because it helps psychologist understand individuals feelings, thoughts and actions. With research, psychologists are able to categorize psychological disorders. If these are categorized, they are able to understand it and analyze its symptoms and its impact to other people and to the society. This also provides understanding on how relationships, interactions, development, family, school, friends, religion and others affect individuals and society. Additionally, it also helps people to develop effective treatment for the development of quality of life.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   There are several types of scientific method in order to assess ones feelings, thoughts and actions. Naturalistic observation is the simplest form of research. It involves observation in natural environment. It provides qualitative data. However, the one being observed can alter their behavior, same as the researchers can alter their observation. Another type is case study. It includes psychological testing, interview and application of observation. Although it is time consuming, it can provide extensive qualitative and quantitative data. Next, survey provides large amount of information in a short period of time. Correlational studies provide understanding on relationship; if there is a relationship, where will the relationship lead, and how strong the relationship is. Lastly, psychological testing utilizes testing to gather information (Psychology 101, 2004).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Research needs scientific method to gain validity of data. Research uses scientific method to organize structure and attempt to gain knowledge. Scientific steps vary depending on research being done. The basic scientific method (Deweys Scientific Method) in doing research includes: identification and defining what the problem is; determining the hypotheses why research is needed or reason why the problem exists; collection and analyzation of data gathered; formulation of conclusion; and lastly, application of the conclusion to the original hypotheses (Research Methods, 2004)   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Primary data in research is the data or samples used or collected during the course of the data gathering or researching. It also pertains to the results of the research. Secondary data, on the other hand, pertains to the data originally collected for a different research but used again for a new research question.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Primary data includes subjects like demographics (age, sex, income, etc.), lifestyle characteristics, attitude, knowledge, intentions, motivations and behavior (Research Methods and Processes, 2006).   It can be collected in field or in laboratory. It can be collected by means of survey or questionnaire. Secondary data is generally less costly and less time consuming in comparison with the collection of the primary data. It is typically gathered before the primary data. Secondary data also help in determining the course in which the primary data is pursued. Example of secondary data is when a researcher uses a data from the Census. It can also be used as background information on specific research and answers specific research question. Unlike primary data, secondary data does not answer new research question sufficiently. Secondary data is available widely because of the development and accessibility of information technology.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Another fundamental in research used for validity is the role of statistics. Statistics is a branch of applied mathematics consists of univariate and multivariate procedures. The role of statistics in psychological research or any other research is to describe concise data in terms of shape, central tendency and dispersing simple frequency distribution and to make decision about the properties of the statistical populations on the basis of statistics (Chow, 2002).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Univariate procedure is used in psychology to measure single variable and multivariate procedure is used in measuring multiple variables. Multivariate procedure in needed to discover relationship between two or more variables, to obtain test statistics and/or to extract factors or latent variables (Chow, 2002). References All Psych Online and Heffner Media Group Inc. (2004). Psychology 101. Retrieved January 10, 2008 from http://allpsych.com/psychology101/experiment.html All Psych Online and Heffner Media Group Inc. (2004). Research Methods. Retrieved January 10, 2008 from http://allpsych.com/researchmethods/introduction.html Chow, S.L. (2002). Statistics and Its Role in Psychological Research. Methods in Psychological Research, p. 1-2. Retrieved January 8, 2008 from http://cogprints.org/2782/1/EOLSSsta.pdf Thompson Gale. (2006). Research Methods and Processes. Retrieved January 8, 2008 from   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   http://www.referenceforbusiness.com/management/Pr-Sa/Research-Methods-and-  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Processes.html

Pakistan and Afghanistan Essay -- Politics, War, Turmoil

From the 1980’s onwards, Pakistan and Afghanistan have been at the forefront of numerous socio-political events germane to the rise of Islamic fundamentalism. The multifarious factors involved form a perplexing web of competing narratives that resist straightforward explanation. This essay will delve into the milieu, seeking alternative theories to construct a cogent thesis for the growth of fundamentalism. In doing so, it will examine the Islamisation policies of Pakistan’s Zia-ul-Haq administration and its congruence with United States interests at the time. Particular focus will be given to the Afghanistan – Pakistan dyad and how the recent return of international forces perpetuates the conditions that allow Islamic fundamentalism to prosper. As a state whose principal raison d'à ªtre is for the protection of Muslims, Pakistan had historically struggled with defining what its Islamic mandate entailed. Arriving in power via a coup d’à ©tat, Zia-ul-Haq employed religion to attain popular legitimacy, orchestrating Islamic reform as a deceitful pretence for securing power (Kennedy 1990: 73). Correspondingly, the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan solidified the role of Islamic politics, with Zia-ul-Haq exhibiting a distinct preference for radical groups as a counterweight to communist ideology (Fuller 1991: 11). The most visible sign of creeping religiosity appeared in 1982 with the declaration that â€Å"national dress† and Islamic studies were mandatory for government employees (Cohen 1988: 314). Underlying this conversion, the government funded the expansion of an increasingly radical madrasa based education system - with the intention to transform the electoral landscape and boost support for Islamic parties ( Nasr 2000: 147). Through th... ...ndamentalists who demur at the state’s very existence, we can opine that Pakistan may already have crossed the Rubicon. This essay has elucidated that Pakistan and Afghanistan are a point of convergence for a litany of failed, arguably asinine policies by both the chief protagonists and outside interests. As such, the rise of Islamic fundamentalism represents the logical endpoint for an array of policies that mobilised extremist religious dogma to achieve geostrategic objectives. Crucially, the abject failure of all involved to disband and reintegrate those forces into a legitimate Afghan state has proved calamitous in its consequences. With recent international intervention bolstering the ideological sources of fundamentalism and with the nexus of instability spreading deep into Pakistan, the continued prominence of Islamic fundamentalism appears inevitable.